The Impact Of Leadership On Innovation Management Essay

The Impact Of Leadership On Innovation Management Essay This paper details the nature and roles of leadership in the field of management innovation. Leadership broadens the organizational levels and initiates the innovation activity through motivating the employees and defining an effective structure for the proper functioning. Use of the concept could be done in a wide range of markets and at the degree of the novelty required. The innovation to make it happen within an organization, a link between the leadership systems and innovation strategies has been introduced. The policy implications recognizes the need for the different stages of the innovation process at different levels of the organizational structure , from which a stepping stone at every level can be achieved which will be followed by the Organizational implication which identifies a proper leader for different hierarchy levels and allows to perform according to the stages of innovation process. In total it clearly gives an idea about the ongoing activities in any organizatio n where an innovative activity occurs with the quality leadership in it and the levels of performance in any sector. Table of Contents 1. INNOVATION 8 1.1. Innovation Vs. Improvement 8 1.2. Innovation Vs. Invention 9 2. Elements for innovation: 10 3. Changing nature of the innovation process 11 3.1. Types of innovation 13 3.2. Innovation implementing methodology 14 4. Degree of Novelty in Innovation 16 5. Leadership Quantities for Innovation 17 6. Definition and Explanation of Leadership Skills 18 6.1. Communication 18 6.2. Integrity 20 6.3. Visions and Goal Statements 21 6.4. Teamwork 22 6.5. Relationships 23 6.6. Persuasion 24 6.7. Adaptability and Flexibility 25 6.8. Coaching and Development 26 6.9. Decision Making 27 6.10. 8.10. Planning 28 6.11. 8.11. Taking Risks 28 6.12. 8.12. Optimism and Motivation 29 7. Innovative Leadership Style and its Impact 31 8. Charismatic Leadership Style 32 8.1. Impact of Charismatic leadership style 32 8.1.1. Communicating with vision:- 32 8.1.2. Accelerating Innovation process:- 33 8.1.3. Leaders can become addicted to charisma:- 33 8.1.4. Organizations can become addicted to the charismatic leader:- 33 8.1.5. Charisma grows for its own sake and forgets its purpose:- 33 8.2. Case Study 34 9. Instrumental Leadership Style 36 9.1. Impact of Instrumental leadership style 36 9.1.1. Structures a innovation process:- 36 9.1.2. Controls a process:- 37 9.1.3. Rewards the innovators:- 37 9.1.4. Constrain to maintain high motive level:- 37 10. STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP STYLE: 38 10.1. STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP PRESUMES: 38 10.2. The strategic leader use different hierarchical position to create innovation structures and processes in the organization such as, 39 10.3. FUNCTIONS OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP IN INNOVATION. 40 10.4. A CASE STUDY OF THE IMPACT OF STRATEGIC LEADERSHIP IN A HIGH-WAY ROAD PROJECT. 40 11. INTERACTIVE INNOVATION LEADERSHIP : 42 11.1. THE MOST EFFECTIVE WAY TO EXERCISE INTERACTIVE LEADERSHIP TOWARDS ACCELERATING CHANGE AND INNOVATION IS TO: 42 11.2. THE INTERACTIVE LEADER CO-INNOVATES WITH OTHER MANAGERS, EMPLOYEES AND SUBORDINATES BY, 42 11.3. Interactive leadership pathway: 43 11.4.   Effective leaders usually practice the following techniques: 43 11.4.1. Sell the Vision of the organization 43 11.4.2. Walk the Talk with the employees. 43 11.4.3. Empower and Delegate 44 11.4.4. Create Urgency in the process 44 11.4.5. Openly Communicating with everyone in the organization. 44 11.4.6. Removing Obstacles/barriers. 44 11.4.7. Celebrate the Little Successes 44 11.5. THE IMPACT OF INTERACTIVE LEADERSHIP IN AN INNOVATIVE PROJECT 45 List of Figures: INNOVATION Innovation is a key word probably being used more than ever by any type of individuals, groups or organizations; from scientist to artists, from engineers to craftsmen. Whether it is the business surroundings or non-profit organizations, political or educational associations, whether it is a developed or a developing market, whether a product or service offering, with high technology or mass production;  the word of innovation is word being recognized as one of the most credible one and term of being innovative sounds as the ultimate path to success in any changing environments especially in terms of globalization. In order to use the terms of innovation one should understand what really innovation is, in order to understand what is in the core of innovation and the description of it one should most likely distinguish the term innovation from the terms and definitions that are considered as synonyms or to have very similar meanings and practices. Although these terms could be inter -related or connected to Innovation in somehow in some phases, they cannot be considered as Innovation itself. These misunderstood terms are Invention, Improvement, Being Innovative is also a term most of the time described as being creative, entrepreneur or just able to handle complexity, therefore after distinguishing the term of innovation, the term of being innovative should be described considering these influencing characteristics. Finally Innovation is a important dimension of the change process therefore the importance of innovation in change process should be identified in order lead reasonable descriptions and definitions of Innovation. After this we can discuss the generation of innovation, types of innovation, methodology of it and finally carry on to the impact of leadership on Innovation (Mintzberg 2003) Innovation Vs. Improvement Although Continuous improvement may end up with an innovation most of the time, defining innovation with a series of incremental changes as a result of continuous improvements would be an insufficient explanation of innovation. The reason is that incremental changes depends on the lessons learnt and follows a horizontal path throughout the idea processing and knowledge creation, in the case of an innovative idea, a leap in the idea processing is observed, a vertical step in time where the track of previous improvement cant be followed or even found irrelevant to the idea discovered. As it can be understood from the term itself improvements follow a continuous path, but innovations are better described as in continuous breakthroughs from the formal horizontal path. The underlying principle with the innovation is that it deserves not only certain amount of time which can be illustrated by the continuous improvements accomplished through lessons learnt and analysiss but also depends upo n certain amount of space which can be explained by the occurrence of some events and situations that triggers this leap in the understanding and level of cognition. To enable a qualified process to overcome sophisticated needs of innovation, continuously improvement is necessary but not sufficient. (Mintzberg 2003) Innovation Vs. Invention Invention is another term being considered with Innovation most of time. What leads to an invention is the orientation of both horizontal and vertical changes, in other words continuous improvements harmonized with innovations. Several Innovations turn into an invention which deserves relatively more time and effort. Some descriptions distinguish innovation as a integrating activity of different disciplines, technologies, approaches, understandings or perspectives whereas claiming invention as of a specific level of change made on a certain study field for long periods. Actually what differs invention from innovation is that invention includes several innovations which lead to a more horizontal and vertical change that makes it even harder to track the continues and integrated improve (Eversheim 2009) Elements for innovation: 1.Basic needs for innovation (Park 2005) Changing nature of the innovation process The change of innovation is completely based on the generations and its requirements. Till now there is five generation of innovations First generation (1950-1960): (Research push) Science and technology Market Research Manufacture Development Marketing Sales Figure:2 First generation innovation process (Dodgson et al. 2008) Second generation (1965-1975): (Demand pull) Science and technology Market Manufacture Sales Research development Market and demand Figure 2: Second generation innovation process (Dodgson et al. 2008) Third generation (1980-1986): Research , Development, Design, Prototyping, Testing, Operations, Marketing, Sales, Service. (Coupling) Science and technology Market Market Communication and feedback loops Figure 3: Third generation innovation process (Dodgson et al. 2008) Fourth generation (1986-2000): (Collaborative) Suppliers Cross functional teams, process based organization Research, Development, Design, Prototyping, Testing, Operations, Marketing, Sales, Service Horizontal research Alliance Science and technology Market Customers Figure 4: Fourth generation innovation process (Dodgson et al. 2008) Fifth generation (2005-2010): Process driven by: Innovative strategy High level organizational and technological integration (Strategic and integrated) Strategic and technological integration with customers, Suppliers, Innovation communities and networks Figure 5: Fifth generation innovation process (Dodgson et al. 2008) Types of innovation The six focus areas for innovation are: Product What we produce and sell Process Continuous improvement of how we do that Marketing Exceeding customer expectations Organization Business strategies, systems and structures Open Working beyond boundaries and collaborating globally Value Creating unique value that eliminates the cost to compete Among these six major four types of innovation in practice are as follows:- Product innovation: Product innovations can be based on new uses or combinations of existing knowledge or technologies. The term product is used to cover both goods and services are referred as product innovation.(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 2005) Process innovations : Production methods involve the techniques, equipment and software used to produce goods or services are referred as process innovation.(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 2005) Marketing innovation: Marketing innovations includes changes in product design that are part of a new marketing concept. Product design changes refer in product form and appearance that do not alter the products or characteristics. They also include changes in the packaging of products, where packaging is the main determinant of the products appearance. Innovations in product design can also include the introduction of significant changes in the form, appearance or taste of food or beverage products, such as the introduction of new flavors for a food product in order to target a new customer segment.(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 2005) Organizational innovation This kind of innovation can be intended to increase a firms performance by reducing administrative costs, transaction costs, improving workplace satisfaction or cost for supplies.(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 2005) Innovation implementing methodology The planning phases of the Innovation Roadmap methodology are as follows Goal setting Future analysis Idea generation Idea evaluation Idea detailing Concept evaluation Implementation planning Controlling.(Eversheim 2009) The below figure illustrates the common innovative and Triz methodological thinking for a new innovation. Figure 6: Innovation methodology (Gao Changqing 2005) Degree of Novelty in Innovation Three concepts for the novelty of innovations are discussed below: new to the firm, new to the market, and new to the world. New to the firm: A product, process, marketing method or organizational method may already have been implemented by other firms, but if it is new to the firm then it is an innovation for that firm. New to the market: Innovations are new to the market when the firm is the first to introduce the innovation on its market. The market is simply defined as the firm and its competitors and it can include a geographic region or product line. New to the world: Innovations are new to the world when the firm is the first to introduce the Innovation for all markets and industries, domestic and international. New to the world therefore implies a qualitatively greater degree of novelty than new to the market(Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development 2005) Leadership Quantities for Innovation This text is based on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Concepts of Leadership by Donald Clark. http://management.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJzTi=1sdn=managementcdn=moneytm=6f=00tt=14bt=0bts=0zu=http%3A//www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leader.html An organization needs to remain competitive a vision. That vision can be reflected in for example new products, services or a reorganization of the organizations structure. The assignment of the leading staff is, to accomplish those visions by leading the employees. Leading in that case means to influence the employees to accomplish the goals and objectives. Leadership is à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾The activity of leading a group of people or an organisation, or the ability to do this. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/leadership.html To lead other people, for a leader it is necessary to be familiar with important leadership knowledge and leadership skills. Leader`s attributes or traits like beliefs, values, ethics and character will influence directly the leadership skills and the leadership style. Additional to some of the leadership skills, which will be short presented and explained during the next pages, there are some principles of leadership which help to become a better leader. Know yourself and seek self-improvement Be technically proficient Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions Make sound and timely decisions Set the example Know your people and look out for their well-being Keep your workers informed Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished Train as a team Use the full capabilities of your organization Definition and Explanation of Leadership Skills Communication Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Two- way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/communication.html This text is based on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Communication and Leadership by Donald Clark. http://management.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJzTi=1sdn=managementcdn=moneytm=4f=00tt=14bt=0bts=0zu=http%3A//www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leader.html Most problems and failed projects in an organization are the results of a wrong communication process or lower communication skills. A failed communication occurs, if the receiver does not understand exactly the information, order or idea which the sender tried to transmit. To prevent confusions and misunderstandings during a communication, a good leader has to know the basics of an effective communication and has to train his communication skills. To get an idea how a communication process is constructed, the communication process can divide into three steps: Thought The message which can be an idea, a concept, informations or feelings will be formed in the mind of the sender. Encording The message, which is formed in the mind of the sender, will be send verbal, nonverbal or with symbols. Decording To understand the meaning of the message, the receiver translates the information with procedures he understands. During a communication the message of the sender will include two elements. These two elements are related to each other. The right interpretation of the elements on both sides (sender and receiver) is very important for an effective communication. The first element is the content. The content includes the verbal information. Verbal informations like spoken words or symbols can be combined to phrases, which then make sense. The verbal content in a message is around 38%. The sender has to be sure that the receiver understands the verbal informations in the right way, otherwise there will be a possibility for misunderstandings and confusions on the receiver side. Many words have different meanings and also the interpretation of the meanings of words can be different. A big possibility for misunderstandings and confusion could also be the circumstance, if one of the participants does not speak the same language or is not a native speaker. The language content in a message is around 7%. A good leader has to train his verbal skills to deliver his message correct to the employees. The second element of a message is the context. The context describes the nonverbal elements. Nonverbal elements include all elements which describe the way how the message was delivered. The nonverbal communication is very important in the communication style. The nonverbal content of a message is around 55%. It delivers feelings to the receiver. The possibility for misunderstandings and confusions on the receiver s side is extremely high, if the nonverbal elements do not fit to the verbal elements. Examples for nonverbal elements are: The body language Examples are the body posture, eye contact and movements. Hand gestures Hand gestures are used to underline words or phrases. The state of emotion States of anger, fear or uncertainty are mostly negative emotions. Elements in speech The tone of the voice. A good leader has to train, in addition to his verbal skills, also his nonverbal skills to deliver his message correct to the employees. Behaviors like eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, posture and body orientation, proximity and vocal techniques shall be a part of the communication. A second important case of communication is the listening part. It can be distinguished between active listening and passive listening. Passive listening means, if the receiver just listens to the senders message. Much informations get lost, because the receiver does not listen carefully. Active listening is the opposite of passive listening. The receiver spends attention to the senders speech to understand the words and feelings. For a good leader it is important to spend more time on active listening than on talking in meetings and other conversations. A possibility to be sure that the receiver understood the message in the right way is the feedback. In a feedback, the receiver tells the sender in his own words, how he understood the message verbal and nonverbal. An advantage is that the sender has the chance to explain the message with other words directly, if the receiver understood the message in a wrong way. Fails or problems can be prevented. Also there is the chance to get into a discussion which could affect the message and communication in a positive way. A feedback is absolutely a benefit for an effective communication. A leader should be familiar with presentation techniques and tools. They are very helpful for highlighting messages, informations, facts and data and make sure for a better understanding. Also it is easier to reach more people in a shorter time. Integrity Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Strict adherence to a moral code, reflected in transparent honesty and complete harmony in that one thinks, says, and does. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/integrity.html This text is based on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾The importance of integrity to leadership by Siti Ibrahim. http://www.helium.com/items/1495580-the-importance-of-integrity-to-leadership Integrity has a big influence on the organization`s structure, the staff and the organization`s publicity. Integrity includes honesty, reliability and trustability and is a part of a positive trait. An integrity based leadership is an interaction between the leader and the employees which benefits the trust, acceptance and respect for each other. Also the communication will have a benefit of integrating an integrity based leadership style. The staff will be more open to accept mistakes, critics and will not be afraid of receiving any negative feedback. This will decrease stress and anxiety. The behavior of the leaders will influence the employees. If an organization has many integrity leaders and employees, individuals with a flawed character will not last long in the organization. Integrity prevents negative actions like corruption or mobbing. From the economical point of view, it is for an organization very important to have many integrity leaders, because the prestige in public will increase. Visions and Goal Statements Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ An aspirational description of what an organization would like to achieve or accomplish in the mid-term or long-term future. It is intended to serves as a clear guide for choosing current and future courses of action. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/vision-statement.html This text is based on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Leading and Leadership by Donald Clark. http://management.about.com/gi/o.htm?zi=1/XJzTi=1sdn=managementcdn=moneytm=5f=00tt=14bt=1bts=1zu=http%3A//www.nwlink.com/~donclark/leader/leader.html A leader needs a strong vision where to go to. Employees want a vision for what they are working for. The leaders assignment is to give the employees a vision. The factors which let employees follow are clearly defined goals and trust. The leader has to set goals to realize the visions. These goals should be: Realistic Attainable Improve the organization All employees should be involved in the goal setting process A program should be developed to achieve the goals Inspiration helps to induce employees to do something, because the task will get a purpose. Also motivation has a big influence to the implementation of a task.(Gao Changqing 2005) Teamwork Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ The process of working collaboratively with a group of people in order to achieve a goal. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/teamwork.html In addition to be able to work as a leader in a team, it is for a leader even more important to be able to form a team and stick it together. This ability is based on the knowledge of: The employees To know the strengths and weaknesses in the technical- , social- and creative-abilities of each employee. Group dynamics To know the coherent of behaviors and psychological processes in a group. Psychology To appreciate charakters of individuals correctly. Team communication To know the rules of communication and to be able to communicate with more people simultaneous. The leader has to get also into the role as a moderator. A usual mistake of leaders is that they form their team out of employees which are too similar. A better output of teamwork will be achieved the more diverse the team members are. The diversity resultates out of: Opinions Backgrounds Capabilities Relationships Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾A connection between variables, such as a correlation, or between people, such as a marriage. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/relationship.html Relationships are for an organization very important. It helps to increase the loyalty of the employees to the organization, products and participants. There can also be relationships to suppliers, customers and other organizations or departments. Some benefits for the organization are: Loyal customers, suppliers, employees It will increase sales and market share Exchange of information Increasing the communication in a positive way Increasing the motivation Decreasing the sickness absence rate Increasing the workflow because of better connections Relationship is based on respect, trust, acceptance, support, understanding, share and celebrating and freedom. For a leader it is important to care for the employees and the organization. A leader should be able for building relationships and networks with and between employees and other contacts. (Dodgson et al. 2008) Persuasion Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾ Process aimed at changing a persons (or a groups) attitude or behavior toward some event, idea, object, or other person(s), by using written or spoken words to convey information, feelings, or reasoning, or a combination of them. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/persuasion.html This text is based on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Leadership by Persuasion Four Steps to Success by Patsi Krakoff,Psy.D..http://ezinearticles.com/?Leadership-by-PersuasionFour-Steps-to-Successid=118428 One of the most important leadership skills which a leader should have is the ability to persuade. Persuasion is related to trust, relationship and communication. By persuasion, people can be influenced to do something voluntary. The benefit is that the people act without coercion, because they are convinced to do something which makes sense in their minds.The leader must only give a reasonable reason. The success of a leader to realize the visions and goals depends on the persuasion skill. The four steps to a successful persuasion are: Establish credibility Expertise and relationships are the sources which develop credibility.Necessary is active listening to other peoples suggestions. Their opinions should be valued. Data and informations should be collected to support the own arguments. Understand the audience Identify benefits to which the audience relates. Identify the interests of important people in the group like decision makers or stakeholders. Reinforce position Arguments should be logical and have consistent facs and experience, should be addressed to audiences interests and neutralize alternatives. Connect Emotionally The communication to the audience should be a mix of intellectual and emotional commitment.(Mintzberg 2003) Adaptability and Flexibility Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Ability of an entity or organism to alter itself or its responses to the changed circumstances or environment. Adaptability shows the ability to learn from experience, and improves the fitness of the learner as a competitor. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/adaptability.html Flexibility and adaptability are necessary for innovations. Without flexibility and adaptability an organization will become inflexible and will not be able to react on intern or extern changes. The business of a leader is to realize the visions and goals with the help of the staff. Problems have to be solved. Solution orientated working will be more effective, if a leader is flexible and adaptable in mind. The ability on changing strategy, plans or programs to unforeseen events will be easier and more successful, because the motivation to change old practices will be higher. With a flexible and adaptable thinking, a leader will be able to find more solutions for a problem and the chance to project similar situations from the past to current situations to find solutions or strategies will increase. A flexible and adaptable leader sees innovations and changes as an opportunity for improvement. Coaching and Development A leader has to be able to coach and develop employees. It is very important to have the focus on coaching and developing young and upcoming employees. These employees often do not have much experience but if they have just finished the university they have a current status of know-how. The benefits are that these employees are motivated and learn in a correct way the skills they really need for the job. Also they bring new influences into the team and gain greater competence. Coaching helps to overcome barriers and to improve job performance. Decision Making Definition: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾The thought process of selecting a logical choice from the available options. http://www.businessdictionary.com/definition/decision-making.html This text is based on à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã… ¾Decision Making Skills by mindtools. http://www.mindtools.com/pages/article/newTED_00.htm Every day a leader has to make decisions. Those decisions have to be timely and well considered, otherwise projects can fail or problems will occur. Decisions can be separate to long term decisions like program activities in two years and short decisions like program activities in the next week. Typically involved issues in long term or short term decision are still the same. Unknowing facts, many interrelated factors, high risk consequences, alternatives and interpersonal issues will make to find the best decision for a leader even harder. To be able to make better decisions, a leader should use a logical, organized and systematic decision making process. It helps to find critical elements and important factors. A decision making process can base on six steps: Creating a constructive environment By establishing the obje

Institutional Racism and Racial Discrimination in the U.S. Health Care System Essay

Institutional racism and racial discrimination in the U.S. health care system has been part of a long continuum dating back over 400 years. After hundreds of years of active discrimination, efforts were made to admit minorities into the â€Å"mainstream† health system but these efforts were flawed. Colin Gordon in his book Dead on Arrival portrays a very strong stance towards this issue when he states, â€Å"The American welfare state has always been, at root, a Jim Crow welfare state – disdainful of citizenship claims of racial minorities, deferential to a southern-controlled Congress, and leery of the racial implications of universal social programs† (172). It is evident that throughout the history of U.S. health care that race has shaped health provisions in a number of ways, most noticeably in private and public health care institutions. Gordon throughout his books discusses the ways in which institutional racism, specifically in the field of healthcare, has manifested itself throughout history. One of the most prominent manifestations of institutional racism in the healthcare field comes to light when examining past (and sometimes present) policies regarding admission (to healthcare facilities) and discrimination of minorities. It is evident when observing the adoption, administration, and implementation of these policies in the past that they were purposefully constructed to be exclusive of minority citizens (specifically African Americans and Latinos). Gordon gives an example of such policies in 1939 under the Social Security reforms. In the formative years of the New Deal southerners in Congress pushed for and won for the exclusion of agricultural and domestic labor from coverage under the National Recovery, Agricultural Adjustment, Social Security, National Labor Relations, and Fair Labor Standards act, this affectively excluded 90 percent of the southern black workforce (185). The implications of this act of agricultural exclusion are most clearly evident in the South and Southwest—regions whose economies were dominated by agriculture, who agriculture systems were peculiarly labor intensive, and whose agricultural labor markets were organized around low wages, tenancy, harsh legal controls, and violence. Gordon argues that segregation  persisted in medicine and hospitals longer than in any other public institution or facility partly due to the fact that Southern Congressmen pushed for local control of any federal expenditure; and later on this pushed Southern and Southwestern leaders into a partnership with doctors, employers, and insurers to keep racial minorities excluded from the health system. Southern interests led to a push for job-based private insurance, locally administered subsidies for hospital construction, and penurious charitable programs for those left behind, â€Å"southerners persistently worked to exclude African Americans from coverage, tap into federal funds without sacrificing local practices, and ensure that charity programs remained under local control† (174). Employment-based benefits, initially developed as a surrogate for national policy, was successful in leaving behind the majority of African Americans and Latinos due to the fact that they were grossly underrepresented in the unionized industrial economy, and in part because benefits such as these did not extend to casual or domestic or agricultural workers. Private health benefits came to be looked upon by many Americans as a â€Å"wage of white-ness† (176). Federal agencies, both out of practical and political necessity, consistently surrendered control over federal funds and standards over to state and local administration, â€Å"states set their own standards for care and eligibility and controlled the pace and scope of federal matching funds. Local political and medical authorities wielded considerable informal power and discretion† (187). In 1948 the Brookings Institution published a book-length assault on health reform. The conclusion of this publication was that higher black mortality rates are â€Å"predominately the result of economic, cultural and social differences† although, the research for this publication based cost estimates off of the ordinary expenditures of white families and confined comparative mortality rates to the white population, this led to them to conclude that the United States was among one of the most healthful nations in the world (188). Seconding this conclusion and also asserting that higher rates of non-white mortality were due to such things as poor sanitation, housing, education, and the lack of ordinary individual and community common sense was the AMA. The partnership between these two organizations is evident. At the root of the hospital issue in the South was not only professional and patient segregation but also the way in which it was countenanced by federal efforts  to address the region’s dearth of facilities. What is shown here is the long-standing political strategy to try and appease reformers by granting federal funds but to simultaneously placate opponents by relinquishing control to local or private interests; federal aid to hospitals both in 1940 and under the 1946 Hill-Burton Act â€Å"avoided any commitment to maintenance: once built, hospitals would reflect local control and local custom† (193). This however did nothing to prevent segregation seeing as in order to be considered nondiscriminatory a hospital was only required to grant equal access to the portion of the hospital that was built with federal funds. Perhaps the most compelling public health issue during the formative years of the American welfare state was the dismal status of rural services. In places in the South and Southwest and the nation’s inner cities basic services such as a hospital, public health clinic, and a doctor accepting Medicaid patients did not even exist. Gordon offers the example in Mississippi in 1948, there were only five general hospital beds for every 100,000 blacks in the state—at a time when four beds for every 1,000 citizens was considered adequate (175). It is evident that health care in the twentieth century has been shaped by a myriad of â€Å"direct and indirect discrimination, strong southern interests and local administration, the uneasy intersection of public and private (job-based) benefits, and the sharp political distinctions routinely drawn between contributory and charitable programs† (209). According to the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, â€Å"Despite the existence of civil rights legislation equal treatment and equal access are not a reality for racial/ethnic minorities and women in the current climate of the health care industry. Many barriers limit both the quality of health care and utilization for these groups, including †¦ discrimination.† Importance of Health Care Access to comprehensive, quality health care services is important for the achievement of health equity and for increasing the quality of a healthy life for everyone. Access to health services entails the timely utilization of personal health services in an effort to achieve the best possible health outcomes. The utilization of and access to health care has many substantial impacts on a person’s life. A person’s overall physical, social and mental health statuses are all impacted by the ability to be examined and treated by a medical professional. Health care also plays a significant role in the prevention of disease and disability, the detection and treatment of health conditions and a person’s quality of life. A structured healthcare system assists in providing a foundation for a healthy lifestyle for both individuals and their families. Without access to healthcare, minor health issues have the potential to escalate either permanently affecting living standards or worse resulting in death. The health care sector also has an impact on the local economy. Health care facilities such as hospitals and nursing homes provide jobs and income to people in the community. As these employees spend their income in the community, a ripple spreads throughout the economy, creating additional jobs and income in other economic sectors. Also, providing healthcare may also be a business incentive to companies. Healthy employees can mean a healthier, happier, more productive workplace. A company’s decision to invest in and offer health care to their employees not only filters back into the economy but also may help them to recruit and retain quality employees, improve employee satisfaction, and reduce absenteeism due to sickness. Business that offer health insurance as part of their employee benefits package are probably better able to attract more qualified applicants than those who don’t. Also, offering health insurance coverage is a way of keeping operating costs low, because employees are generally more apt to take a position at a lower salary when health insurance benefits are provided. This is because it generally costs more for someone to obtain an individual or family health insurance policy than to get employer-sponsored coverage, making the difference of a lower salary negotiable. Businesses offering health insurance can deduct their portion of the contribution toward their employee plan as a business expense and get a tax advantage. If the business is incorporated, the business owner’s insurance and the coverage paid for employees are deductible. Access to health care services and insurance plays a vital role in individual and families lives along side society as a whole.

Victim Impact Statement

Victim Impact Statement – Drafted by Blanche Dubois Creative Writing Task – English HL Divya Jethwani (12B) Victim Impact Statement – Drafted by Blanche Dubois Creative Writing Task – English HL Divya Jethwani (12B) Your honor, I, Blanche DuBois am here today, as your living example of how a cruel crime can affect a person so radically, bringing in a change so drastic causing them to feel alienated and unwanted.The case with regard to my rape that we address in the court today may just be in relation to a sole crime committed by my darling sister’s husband, Stanley Kowalski; however, in all honesty I feel that I have been victimized right from the day I arrived at their residence at Elysian Fields. It may be a little too late according to the law to discuss a crime almost 5 years after it was committed, however that would only be in order if this crime and its effects were subdued instantly.Although, obviously that wasn’t the case, and eviden tly I am still suffering from the consequences of other people’s actions, I am still labeled as the person who is mentally imbalanced and furthermore, I don’t have enough money to pay off my debts for my stay at the recuperation center anymore. Who is going to restore my reputation? Who is going to pay off these bills that were generated for my recovery after my assault? How do I feel, after all these years, now that I am finally out of the four-walled room in the mental asylum that felt like prison? I feel incompetent, I feel redundant, I feel damaged and lastly I feel broken beyond repair.The years have passed by, but me; I’m still stuck in time, still stuck in that moment when I was whisked away to a mental asylum in opposition to my belief that I was going away with the handsome Shep Huntleigh. Is this fair your honor? Can the emotional scars that are now engraved on me be justified? It is possible to say that I might have been remotely imbalanced earlier du e to my disposition after the loss of our ancestral home, Belle Reve and I also lost my reputation and status back in Laurel for indulging in inappropriate acts with several men. It is also true that I have lost my husband several years go and the loss has been absolutely unbearable causing me to turn to alcohol and other harmful habits, however when I arrived at Stella darling’s house, I expected to receive love, warmth and affection but all I was showered with in return was animosity and a cold shoulder from Stanley Kowalski. It may not have started with an instant hatred; in fact it didn’t start with hatred at all. Stanley appeared to be of a very flirtatious and playful nature on our first encounter. The polygamous type, who may have possibly been sexually attracted to more than one woman, I noticed it instantly but I didn’t let it get to me.I had a sense of respect for the man, after all he is my sister’s husband, however after his act of infidelity, all I can say is that all men are the same, all with selfish desires. The first time I noticed a change in Stanley’s behavior was after the realization that we lost Belle Reve. He started to doubt me, started to believe that I had squandered away the money from the sale of Belle Reve and that I was lying to him and my sister. I do agree that I can be vain quite some times, however I can assure you all present here today I could never be so deceitful to perform such a venal act.The fact that this had planted a seed of doubt in Stanley’s mind started to make me nervous, my insecurities started to emerge and I could not handle this attack on me as a person. Stanley changed so drastically over such a short period of time, and suddenly I know that he has attacked my poor baby sister and planted a slap on her face. Which gentleman does that to his wife during pregnancy your honor? Can this even be considered a human act? Forget slapping your wife during her pregnancy, how c an one explain an act of adultery with your wife’s sister when she is going through labor in the hospital that very night?Chivalry is dead your honor chivalry is dead! That night when my little doll was suffering in hospital delivering his baby, Stanley came home to celebrate the happiness of the new life in the world and instead of celebrating together the birth of this child, the night turned into that of regret, hate and abuse. Stanley thoughtlessly abused my weakness and the fact that I was helpless and couldn’t shout for help at all. He was ruthless; he started yelling at me, called me a dreamer and told me I was imagining all the things that were happening to me and then when I tried to run away from him, he stopped me, blocked my way and I was helpless.I couldn’t run! And then he indignantly assaulted me in my sister’s house†¦ how am I supposed to feel your honor? Stanley Kowalski’s behavior is downright disgusting and filthy. This man is the reason for all the suffering my baby sister faces to date even after the birth of her child. I cannot handle to see her like this your honor, my baby sister; she’s the apple of my eye. Please help her, please help us, and please understand. Punish this brute rightly with the worst punishment ever for this sort of behavior.Your honor, we depend on you and the law for the correct judgment and punishment for all the pain and grief the beast has caused us. Thank You, Blanche DuBois Bibliography: â€Å"A Streetcar Named Desire. † SparkNotes. SparkNotes, n. d. Web. 14 Oct. 2012. . â€Å"AMERICANA – E-Journal of American Studies in Hungary. † AMERICANA: â€Å"Southern Bellehood (De)Constructed: A Case Study of Blanche DuBois† by Biljana OklopA? iA?. N. p. , n. d. Web. 14 Oct. 2012. .

The Functions and History of the Roman Senate Essay

The Functions and History of the Roman Senate In todays modern world representative government is the norm. Nearly all governments are ruled by their citizens via a republic or some other type of governing body. However, in the ancient world, this standard of democratic government had not yet taken hold; political control still belonged to the few elite, rich, and powerful persons and influential families. Thus, we have a contrast between governments of the ancient world and our modern day governments. In other words, the past generally denotes monarchy, empire, or absolute control. While modern government usually implies republic, voting, or democratic control. However, an analysis of Roman government reveals that it does†¦show more content†¦Their primary duties included leading the army, serving as judges, and having ceremonial religious duties. The next governmental institution, which represented the democratic element of the Roman Republic, are the Assemblies. These Assemblies were theoretically made up of all adult male Romans (the only exception is that they had to be present at the meetings). Their primary functions were the annual elections of consuls, approving or rejecting laws, and deciding issues of war and peace. One great flaw of this body was that the wealthier citizens voted first and thereby had a great influence on how the rest of the Assembly voted. Finally, we come to the focus of this report, that is, the Roman Senate. The Senate represented the aristocratic and elitist element of Roman government and was a collection of patrician citizens (the patrician/plebian conflict will be described in more depth later) who served as the legislative branch of the government as well as an advisory body. In the beginning of the Republic, the Senate contained 300 members, the members themselves were chosen from the patrician class, ex-consuls, and other officers who served for life. 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